Argument Advice and Guidelines

Argument is concerned with questions of judgment, not taste

• Judgment is joined to the logical and reasonable
• It's best to reveal points often overlooked
• It's a good idea to define your terms so your audience
  knows exactly what you are talking about. [consult a
  dictionary if you need]

Having a Debatable Point

• You need an argumentative edge.
• The main point/assertion--Thesis statement--must be open
  to dispute and able to be viewed from more than one side.
• Statements of fact are not debatable, neither are
  statements about personal tastes and preferences.
• A point is Debatable if no amount of reasoning by an
  expert or support by statistics can prove the truth or
  fallacy of the statement.

Supporting the Claim

• Offer the reader convincing reasons why your position is
  X because of Y.
• Choose reasons carefully to move your audience
• If you use outside sources (as this assignment requires),
  choose reliable and authoritative ones.
• Use hard evidence [facts] and not soft evidence
  [opinion].
• Conclusions based on soft evidence will often not stand
  up to scrutiny.

To Argue a Point Persuasively You Must do the Following

• Offer convincing reasons
• Arguments only as good as the reasons used to support it.
• You have to make your readers agree with you, or at least
  see the point you are making
• Use only the best evidence.

Appeal to Reason

Induction

• Often you will use induction to reach a generalization
  [informed opinion] and then that generalization can be
  used deductively to reach a conclusion.
• The major premise must be acceptable, minor premise must
  be verifiable, and the argument is not overstated.
• Induction is from Latin inducere for "to lead,"
  to draw along: reasoning from specific evidence to a
  general conclusion to move from the specific instances to
  the generalizations necessary to make a point and to
  establish the cause or causes of something.
• The act, process, or result or an instance of reasoning
  from a part to a whole, from particulars to generals or
  from the individual to the universal. Specific instances
  which lead to a generalization.
• Don't make generalizations too sweeping.

Deduction

• Applying a proven generalization to a specific case,
  using generalizations to arrive at a specific conclusion.
  .
• The conclusion is arrived at inductively, so induction is
  used often times to set up deductive arguments.
• The generalization must be accepted and the specific
  instance must be a fact for the conclusion to be
  accurate.
• Illogical deductive arguments usually result from a
  faulty major premise or inaccurate generalization.

Syllogism

• Syllogism comes from the Greek "syllogismos"
  for 'to calculate with words'.
• A deductive scheme of formal argument consisting of a
  major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion.
• Moves from general to specific. major premise

Toulmin Model

• Combination of inductive and deductive reasoning schemes.
• Concerned more with probability than certainty. See the
  following examples.
  

  Claim

• Equivalent to the conclusion or what the writer wants to
  prove;
  

  Data

• The information or evidence a writer offers in support of
  the claim;
  

  Warrant

• A general statement that establishes a trustworthy
  relationship between the data and the claim. Leads to
  conclusion that is probably true.
• Claim and data must be specific/explicit
  

  Assumptions
  underlie this warrant

• (such as that the data is valid)
• Be prepared to back up warrant.

The warrant is false because a French tourist who has a child
while vacatioining in Puerto Rico may chose between American and
French citizenship for their child.

Here the warrant is accurate given the above information and
the reasoning is logical given the information. The warrant
establishes a trustworthy relationship between the Data and the
Claim.

Distinguish Hard from Soft Evidence

• Hard evidence equal facts; soft evidence consists of
  opinion.
• Base conclusions on hard evidence.
• Avoid showy, deceptive conclusions These seem correct at
  first, but rarely are. Often based on soft evidence or
  ignores important variables--which is why scientific
  studies are done in several populations and placebos are
  given.

Avoid Faulty Generalizations

• Something true in one case need not be true in all cases:
  Blondes have more fun, television is worthless, money
  buys happiness.
• Often these are stereotypes.
• Often are based on insufficient or irrelevant evidence or
  they are too broad and sweeping
• Often these faulty generalizations are based on
  stereotypes.

Avoid Begging the Question

• Happens when you assume that a debate's premise
  underlying your assertion has already been demonstrated
  to be true, so you beg your reader to take your word for
  it, trust me you say.
• You assume what you are arguing to be the case can be
  used as evidence to make that case.
• Occurs when you assume that a debatable premise
  underlying the point you want to make has already been
  proven.
• These arguments assume that what the arguer is supposed
  to be proving is already accepted as having been proven.

Avoid Avoiding the Question

• Often done with an emotional appeal to distract reader
  from the real issue.
• An appeal to pity, fear, normalcy, flattery, patriotism,
  or snob appeal.
• Avoids the real issue with material that is irrelevant or
  which clouds the issue by making an irrational appeal to
  the emotions.

Avoid Bandwagon Approach

• Everyone is doing it, why can't I? Gets readers to agree
  by claiming that everyone else agrees.
• Following the crowd avoids the real issue.

Avoid Attacking the Opponent

• Name calling or other derogatory statements about their
  character ignores the real question and exposes a weak
  position.

Avoid Faulty Causal Argument

• Causes can have more than one effect, so make sure the
  link is solid and demonstrable.
• Often the result of oversimplification, suggesting
  relationships that don't exist, the ignoring of evidence
  which may run counter to the argument being made, and
  denying the real reasons.

Avoid Imposing Either/Or Fallacy

• Leaves out all but the extremes of thespectrum.
• Occurs when the issue is reduced to the two extremes.
• Eliminates all middle ground because you are either for
  or against.

Proper Appeals to Emotion

• Such emotional appeals require showing empathy and
  identifying with your reader's feelings.
• Identify with your opposition's feelings and point of
  view.

Acknowledge Opposing Views

• Show respect for the opposition and what is valid about
  their argument.
• Acknowledge the merit of other opinions.

Maintain a Moderate Tone

• When you act like you are the only authority, then many
  people will be turned off by what you have to say no
  matter how valid and important your material.
• Don't be belligerent, telling anyone who doesn't side
  with you that they are fools and being duped by the
  opposition.

Recognizing Flaws in Persuasion and Argument

Bogus Claims

• Claims are bogus or false when the persuader promises
  more than he or she can prove beyond dispute.

Loaded Terms

• Terms are loaded when they are asked to carry more
  emotional weight than the context can legitimately
  support: Bush regime, Marxist President Salvador Allende,
  Unnecessary adjectives wealthy candidate used to turn the
  unwealthy away from the candidate.

Misrepresentation

• Lies, twisting what others have said through
  oversimplification
• Complex argument reduced to ridicule--ask for evidence to
  support claims.
• Use quotes within their context.

The above Three Terms Represent the Qualities of Propaganda.